Articles | Volume 41, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-55-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-55-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Regular paper
| 
19 Jan 2023
Regular paper |
| 19 Jan 2023
| 19 Jan 2023
A technique for volumetric incoherent scatter radar analysis
Johann Stamm
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute for physics and technology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
Juha Vierinen
Institute for physics and technology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
Björn Gustavsson
Institute for physics and technology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
Andres Spicher
Institute for physics and technology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
Related authors
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, and Björn Gustavsson
Ann. Geophys., 39, 961–974, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of the electric field and neutral wind in the ionosphere are important for understanding energy flows or electric currents. With incoherent scatter radars (ISRs), we can measure the velocity of the ions, which depends on both the electrical field and the neutral wind. In this paper, we investigate methods to use ISR data to find reasonable values for both parameters. We find that electric field can be well measured down to 125 km height and neutral wind below this height.
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, Juan M. Urco, Björn Gustavsson, and Jorge L. Chau
Ann. Geophys., 39, 119–134, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-119-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-119-2021, 2021
Kian Sartipzadeh, Andreas Kvammen, Björn Gustavsson, Njål Gulbrandsen, Magnar Gullikstad Johnsen, Devin Huyghebaert, and Juha Vierinen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3070, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3070, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Knowing charged particle densities high above Earth is key for forecasting space weather effects on satellites and communications, but they are difficult to estimate at high latitudes because of auroras. We built an artificial intelligence model for northern Norway using radar observations, magnetic field measurements, geophysical indices and solar activity. It produces more accurate estimates than existing methods, even during auroral events, and can be adapted to other regions.
Devin Huyghebaert, Juha Vierinen, Björn Gustavsson, Ralph Latteck, Toralf Renkwitz, Marius Zecha, Claudia C. Stephan, J. Federico Conte, Daniel Kastinen, Johan Kero, and Jorge L. Chau
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2323, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2323, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
The phenomena of meteors occurs at altitudes of 60–120 km and can be used to measure the neutral atmosphere. We use a large high power radar system in Norway (MAARSY) to determine changes to the atmospheric density between the years of 2016–2023 at altitudes of 85–115 km. The same day-of-year is compared, minimizing changes to the measurements due to factors other than the atmosphere. This presents a novel method by which to obtain atmospheric neutral density variations.
Oliver Stalder, Björn Gustavsson, and Ilkka Virtanen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2340, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2340, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Annales Geophysicae (ANGEO).
Short summary
Short summary
The rapid changes in ion composition during auroral are dynamically modeled by integrating the coupled continuity equations for 15 ionospheric species. The effect of the ionospheric variation on the inversion of ISR electron density profiles to differential energy spectra of precipitating electrons is studied. A systematic overestimation at high electron energies can be removed using a dynamic model. Comparisons are made with static and steady-state ionospheric models.
Etienne Gavazzi, Andres Spicher, Björn Gustavsson, James Clemmons, Robert Pfaff, and Douglas Rowland
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2098, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2098, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Annales Geophysicae (ANGEO).
Short summary
Short summary
Auroral precipitation refers to energetic particles that come down into the upper part of our atmosphere, the ionosphere. There, they collide with atoms and molecules and transfer some of their energy, causing aurora. The most rapid time-variation of this energy deposition and its consequences on the ionosphere are not fully understood. We show here that one can use a new model to study auroral precipitation on sub-second timescales and advance our understanding about small-scale dynamic aurora.
Spencer Mark Hatch, Ilkka Virtanen, Karl Magnus Laundal, Habtamu Wubie Tesfaw, Juha Vierinen, Devin Ray Huyghebaert, Andres Spicher, and Jens Christian Hessen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1768, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1768, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study addresses the design of next-generation incoherent scatter radar experiments used to study the ionosphere, particularly with systems that have multiple sites. We have developed a method to estimate uncertainties of measurements of plasma density, temperature, and ion drift. Our method is open-source, and helps to optimize radar configurations and assess the effectiveness of an experiment. This method ultimately serves to enhance our understanding of Earth's space environment.
Devin Huyghebaert, Björn Gustavsson, Juha Vierinen, Andreas Kvammen, Matthew Zettergren, John Swoboda, Ilkka Virtanen, Spencer M. Hatch, and Karl M. Laundal
Ann. Geophys., 43, 99–113, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-99-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-99-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The EISCAT_3D radar is a new ionospheric radar under construction in the Fennoscandia region. The radar will make measurements of plasma characteristics at altitudes above approximately 60 km. The capability of the system to make these measurements at spatial scales of less than 100 m using multiple digitised signals from each of the radar antenna panels is highlighted. There are many ionospheric small-scale processes that will be further resolved using the techniques discussed here.
Yoshimasa Tanaka, Yasunobu Ogawa, Akira Kadokura, Takehiko Aso, Björn Gustavsson, Urban Brändström, Tima Sergienko, Genta Ueno, and Satoko Saita
Ann. Geophys., 42, 179–190, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-179-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-179-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present via simulation how useful monochromatic images taken by a multi-point imager network are for auroral research in the EISCAT_3D project. We apply the generalized-aurora computed tomography (G-ACT) to modeled multiple auroral images and ionospheric electron density data. It is demonstrated that G-ACT provides better reconstruction results than the normal ACT and can interpolate ionospheric electron density at a much higher spatial resolution than observed by the EISCAT_3D radar.
Theresa Rexer, Björn Gustavsson, Juha Vierinen, Andres Spicher, Devin Ray Huyghebaert, Andreas Kvammen, Robert Gillies, and Asti Bhatt
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-2023-18, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-2023-18, 2024
Preprint under review for GI
Short summary
Short summary
We present a second-level calibration method for electron density measurements from multi-beam incoherent scatter radars. It is based on the well-known Flat field correction method used in imaging and photography. The methods improve data quality and useability as they account for unaccounted, and unpredictable variations in the radar system. This is valuable for studies where inter-beam calibration is important such as studies of polar cap patches, plasma irregularities and turbulence.
Thomas B. Leyser, Tima Sergienko, Urban Brändström, Björn Gustavsson, and Michael T. Rietveld
Ann. Geophys., 41, 589–600, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-589-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-589-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Powerful radio waves transmitted into the ionosphere from the ground were used to study electron energization in the pumped ionospheric plasma turbulence, by detecting optical emissions from atomic oxygen. Our results obtained with the EISCAT (European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association) facilities in northern Norway and optical detection with the ALIS (Auroral Large Imaging System) in northern Sweden suggest that long-wavelength upper hybrid waves are important in accelerating electrons.
Daniel K. Whiter, Noora Partamies, Björn Gustavsson, and Kirsti Kauristie
Ann. Geophys., 41, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We measured the height of green and blue aurorae using thousands of camera images recorded over a 7-year period. Both colours are typically brightest at about 114 km altitude. When they peak at higher altitudes the blue aurora is usually higher than the green aurora. This information will help other studies which need an estimate of the auroral height. We used a computer model to explain our observations and to investigate how the green aurora is produced.
Knut Ola Dølven, Juha Vierinen, Roberto Grilli, Jack Triest, and Bénédicte Ferré
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 11, 293–306, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-293-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-293-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Sensors capable of measuring rapid fluctuations are important to improve our understanding of environmental processes. Many sensors are unable to do this, due to their reliance on the transfer of the measured property, for instance a gas, across a semi-permeable barrier. We have developed a mathematical tool which enables the retrieval of fast-response signals from sensors with this type of sensor design.
Carsten Baumann, Antti Kero, Shikha Raizada, Markus Rapp, Michael P. Sulzer, Pekka T. Verronen, and Juha Vierinen
Ann. Geophys., 40, 519–530, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-519-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-519-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Arecibo radar was used to probe free electrons of the ionized atmosphere between 70 and 100 km altitude. This is also the altitude region were meteors evaporate and form secondary particulate matter, the so-called meteor smoke particles (MSPs). Free electrons attach to these MSPs when the sun is below the horizon and cause a drop in the number of free electrons, which are the subject of these measurements. We also identified a different number of free electrons during sunset and sunrise.
Mizuki Fukizawa, Takeshi Sakanoi, Yoshimasa Tanaka, Yasunobu Ogawa, Keisuke Hosokawa, Björn Gustavsson, Kirsti Kauristie, Alexander Kozlovsky, Tero Raita, Urban Brändström, and Tima Sergienko
Ann. Geophys., 40, 475–484, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-475-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-475-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The pulsating auroral generation mechanism has been investigated by observing precipitating electrons using rockets or satellites. However, it is difficult for such observations to distinguish temporal changes from spatial ones. In this study, we reconstructed the horizontal 2-D distribution of precipitating electrons using only auroral images. The 3-D aurora structure was also reconstructed. We found that there were both spatial and temporal changes in the precipitating electron energy.
Derek McKay, Juha Vierinen, Antti Kero, and Noora Partamies
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 11, 25–35, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-25-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-25-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
When radio waves from our galaxy enter the Earth's atmosphere, they are absorbed by electrons in the upper atmosphere. It was thought that by measuring the amount of absorption, it would allow the height of these electrons in the atmosphere to be determined. If so, this would have significance for future instrument design. However, this paper demonstrates that it is not possible to do this, but it does explain how multiple-frequency measurements can nevertheless be useful.
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, and Björn Gustavsson
Ann. Geophys., 39, 961–974, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of the electric field and neutral wind in the ionosphere are important for understanding energy flows or electric currents. With incoherent scatter radars (ISRs), we can measure the velocity of the ions, which depends on both the electrical field and the neutral wind. In this paper, we investigate methods to use ISR data to find reasonable values for both parameters. We find that electric field can be well measured down to 125 km height and neutral wind below this height.
Torbjørn Tveito, Juha Vierinen, Björn Gustavsson, and Viswanathan Lakshmi Narayanan
Ann. Geophys., 39, 427–438, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-427-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-427-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This work explores the role of EISCAT 3D as a tool for planetary mapping. Due to the challenges inherent in detecting the signals reflected from faraway bodies, we have concluded that only the Moon is a viable mapping target. We estimate the impact of the ionosphere on lunar mapping, concluding that its distorting effects should be easily manageable. EISCAT 3D will be useful for mapping the lunar nearside due to its previously unused frequency (233 MHz) and its interferometric capabilities.
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, Juan M. Urco, Björn Gustavsson, and Jorge L. Chau
Ann. Geophys., 39, 119–134, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-119-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-119-2021, 2021
Cited articles
Akbari, H., Pfaff, R., Clemmons, J., Freudenreich, H., Rowland, D., and
Streltsov, A.: Resonant Alfvén Waves in the Lower Auroral Ionosphere:
Evidence for the Nonlinear Evolution of the Ionospheric Feedback Instability,
J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 127, e2021JA029854,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029854, 2022. a
Beynon, W. J. G. and Williams, P. J. S.: Incoherent scatter of radio waves from
the ionosphere, Rep. Prog. Phys., 41, 909–947, 1978. a
Brekke, A., Doupnik, J. R., and Banks, P. M.: Incoherent Scatter Measurements
of E Region Conductivities and Currents in the Auroral Zone, J.
Geophys. Res., 79, 3773–3790, 1974. a
Brekke, A., Nozawa, S., and Sparr, T.: Studies of the E region neutral wind in
the quiet auroral ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 99,
8801–8826, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JA03232, 1994. a
Clayton, R., Burleigh, M., Lunch, K. A., Zettergren, M., Evans, T., Grubbs, G.,
Hampton, D. L., Hysell, D., Kaeppler, S., Lessard, M., Michell, R., Reimer,
A., Roberts, T. M., Samara, M., and Varney, R.: Examining the Auroral
Ionosphere in Three Dimensions Using Reconstructed 2D Maps of Auroral Data to
Drive the 3D GEMINI Model, J. Geophys. Res.-Space,
126, e2021JA029749, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JA029749, 2021. a
Dahlgren, H., Gustavsson, B., Lanchester, B. S., Ivchenko, N., Brändström, U., Whiter, D. K., Sergienko, T., Sandahl, I., and Marklund, G.: Energy and flux variations across thin auroral arcs, Ann. Geophys., 29, 1699–1712, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-29-1699-2011, 2011. a
Fuiji, R., Amm, O., Vanhamäki, H., Yoshikawa, A., and Ieda, A.: An application
of the finite length Cowling channel model to auroral arcs with longitudinal
variations, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A11217, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JA017953,
2012. a
Heinselman, C. J. and Nicolls, M. J.: A Bayesian approach to electric field and
E‐region neutral wind estimation with the Poker Flat Advanced Modular
Incoherent Scatter Radar, Radio Sci., 43, RS5013, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007RS003805,
2008. a, b, c, d
Hysell, D. L. and Chau, J. L.: Aperture Synthesis Radar Imaging for Upper
Atmospheric Research, in: Doppler Radar Observations – Weather Radar, Wind
Profiler, Ionospheric Radar, and Other Advanced Applications, edited by: Bech,
J. and Chau, J. L., 357–376, IntechOpen, Rijeka, ISBN 978-953-51-0496-4, 2012. a
Kelly, M. C. (Ed.): The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics,
Academic Press, San Diego, 2nd Edn., ISBN 978-012-08-8425-4, 2009. a
Kero, J., Kastinen, D., Vierinen, J., Grydeland, T., Heinselman, C. J.,
Markkanen, J., and Tjulin, A.: EISCAT 3D: the next generation international
atmosphere and geospace research radar, in: Proceedings of the First NEO and
Debris Detection Conference, edited by: Flohrer, T., Jehn, R., and Schmitz,
F., ESA Space Safety Programme Office, Darmstadt, http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2640334 (last access: 15 January 2023), 2019. a
McCrea, I., Aikio, A., Alfonsi, L., Belova, E., Buchert, S., Clilverd, M.,
Engler, N., Gustavsson, B., Heinselman, C., Kero, J., Kosch, M., Lamy, H.,
Leyser, T., Ogawa, Y., Oksavik, K., Pellinen-Wannberg, A., Pitout, F., Rapp,
M., Stanislawska, I., and Vierinen, J.: The science case for the EISCAT_3D
radar, Prog. Earth Planet. Sc., 2, 21,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-015-0051-8, 2015. a, b
Nygrén, T., Aikio, A. T., Kuula, R., and Voiculescu, M.: Electric fields and
neutral winds from monostatic incoherent scatter measurements by means of
stochastic inversion, J. Geophys. Res., 116, A05305,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA016347, 2011. a, b, c, d
Nygrén, T., Aikio, A. T., Voiculescu, M., and Kuula, R.: Statistical
evaluation of electric field and neutral wind results from beam-swing
incoherent scatter measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 117, A0431,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JA017307, 2012. a, b
Risbeth, H. and Williams, P. J. S.: The EISCAT Ionosphere Radar: The System and
its Early Results, Q. J. Roy. Astron. Soc., 26,
478–512, 1985. a
Roininen, L., Lehtinen, M. S., Lasanen, S., and Orispää, M.: Correlation
priors, Inverse Probl. Imag., 5, 167–184,
https://doi.org/10.3934/ipi.2011.5.167, 2011. a
Semeter, J., Butler, T., Heinselman, C., Nicolls, M., Kelly, J., and Hampton,
D.: Volumetric imaging of the auroral atmosphere: Initial results from PFISR,
J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 71, 738–743,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2008.08.014, 2009. a, b, c
Stamm, J. and Vierinen, J. Replication Data for: A technique for volumetric incoherent scatter radar analysis, V1, DataverseNO [code], https://doi.org/10.18710/ZM973L, 2022. a
Stamm, J., Vierinen, J., Urco, J. M., Gustavsson, B., and Chau, J. L.: Radar imaging with EISCAT 3D, Ann. Geophys., 39, 119–134, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-119-2021, 2021b. a
Swoboda, J., Semeter, J., and Erickson, P.: Space-time ambiguity functions for
electronically scanned ISR applications, Radio Sci., 50, 415–430,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014RS005620, 2014. a
Swoboda, J., Semeter, J., Zettergren, M., and Erickson, P.: Observability of
ionospheric space-time structure with ISR: A simulation study, Radio Sci.,
52, 215–234, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016RS006182, 2017. a, b
Thébault, E., Finlay, C. C., Beggan, C. D., Alken, P., Aubert, J., Barrois,
O., Bertrand, F., Bondar, T., Boness, A., Brocco, L., Canet, E., Chambodut,
A., Chulliat, A., Coïsson, P., Civet, F., Du, A., Fournier, A., Fratter, I.,
Gillet, N., Hamilton, B., Hamoudi, M., Hulot, G., Jager, T., Korte, M.,
Kuang, W., Lalanne, X., Langlais, B., Léger, J.-M., Lesur, V., Lowes, F. J.,
Macmillan, S., Mandea, M., Manoj, C., Maus, S., Olsen, N., Petrov, V.,
Ridley, V., Rother, M., Sabaka, T. J., Saturnino, D., Schachtschneider, R.,
Sirol, O., Tangborn, A., Thomson, A., Tøffner-Clausen, L., Vigneron, P.,
Wardinski, I., and Zvereva, T.: International Geomagnetic Reference Field:
the 12th generation, Earth Planet. Space, 67, 1–19,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-015-0228-9, 2015. a
Valentic, T., Buonocore, J., Cousins, M., Heinselman, C., Jorgensen, J., Kelly,
J., Malone, M., Nicolls, M., and van Eyken, A.: AMISR the advanced modular
incoherent scatter radar, in: 2013 IEEE International Symposium on Phased
Array Systems and Technology, IEEE, 659–663, https://doi.org/10.1109/ARRAY.2013.6731908,
2013. a
Vargas, F., Yang, G., Batista, P., and Gobbi, D.: Growth Rate of Gravity Wave
Amplitudes Observed in Sodium Lidar Density Profiles and Nightglow Image
Data, Atmosphere, 10, 750, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120750, 2019.
a
Wirth, W.-D. (Ed.): Radar techniques using array antennas, The institution of
Electrical Engineers, London, ISBN 085-29-6798-5, 2001. a
Zou, Y., Lyons, L., Conde, M., Varney, R., Angelopoulos, V., and Mende, S.:
Effects of Substorms on High-Latitude Upper Thermospheric winds, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 126, e2020JA028193, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JA028193, 2021. a
Short summary
The study of some ionospheric events benefit from the knowledge of how the physics varies over a volume and over time. Examples are studies of aurora or energy deposition. With EISCAT3D, measurements of ion velocity vectors in a volume will be possible for the first time. We present a technique that uses a set of such measurements to estimate electric field and neutral wind. The technique relies on adding restrictions to the estimates. We successfully consider restrictions based on physics.
The study of some ionospheric events benefit from the knowledge of how the physics varies over a...
